![]() Genetic endowment is often stated as an “obvious” cause of East African dominance. These countries have produced the record breakers and yet none of the areas are the same …Why such a small area of the world has prolifically produced world record holders I don't know”. Legendary runner Ron Clarke highlighted this clearly in 1981, “ …record breaking in distance running has come from very small areas of the world …New Zealand Australia England a small part of the African continent …and maybe Finland. Hence, although it is clear that living and training at altitude results in a variety of physiological adaptations, the exact nature and relative importance of these adaptations to the success of athletes from altitude are yet to be elucidated. Saltin et al 3 found that Scandinavian athletes living at sea level had a higher muscle buffering capacity than Kenyan athletes, and that altitude training enhanced muscle buffering capacity in sea level residents training at altitude, but not in Kenyans who reside at altitude. It could be argued that the variables measured do not reflect the key physiological parameters involved, and Noakes 8 has theorised that cardiac function may well be the differentiating variable. They concluded that the Sherpas' legendary endurance could not be explained by any of the features studied, which were found not to be unique to Sherpas. They found the Sherpas to have significantly lower maximal aerobic uptake and lower mitochondrial density, but equivalent capillary density and muscle fibre size compared with acclimatised caucasian climbers. 6 Similarly, using analysis of indirect maximal oxygen uptake and muscle biopsies, Kayser et al 7 compared five Nepalese Sherpas with caucasian climbers and lowland sedentary adults. Despite the small sample size (three), this may suggest that chronic exposure to altitude reduces rather than enhances maximal aerobic potential. 5 While studying the difference between muscle fibre types of highland and lowland Andean dwellers, Rosser and Hochachka 6 found that type I (slow twitch) muscle fibres of those living at altitudes of 3300 m had reduced levels of oxidative enzymes (malate dehydrogenase) and enhanced glycolytic ability. 5 If altitude were the only factor involved, then all African countries with high altitude populations, as well as countries such as Nepal, Peru, and Mexico, should be producing many world class athletes. ![]() ![]() 4 In the case of the East African runner, it is widely believed that birth and living at altitude produces great athletes, despite the great range in athletic productivity observed between areas of similar altitude. Scandinavian running dominance in the early 20th century, easily comparable with that of East African dominance today, was felt to be a result of the forests, lakes, and scenery enhancing the performance of the athletes. Caucasians world wide are searching for proof of the physical advantage of the East Africans while handing them on a platter a psychological advantage which, until removed, will perpetuate the current state.ĮNVIRONMENTAL AND PHYSIOLOGICAL VARIABLESĮnvironmental determinism is a term used to describe the attribution of human performance to the environment in which the human lives. Like Scandinavian distance runners in the early 20th century, who won 28 of 36 possible Olympic medals over 5000 and 10 000 m, the East Africans have developed an aura of invincibility, both in their own minds and the minds of their caucasian opponents. Traditional social and cultural factors have often been described as “advantageous”, and, although these factors may be to a greater or lesser extent involved in the East African dominance, it is probable that both the African and caucasian psychology or “mindset” are now additional important factors in maintaining that dominance. Although many physiological and anatomical factors have been proposed to explain East African dominance, research into these variables has not yet revealed any definitive advantage for the African. As well as dominating the track events at the last several Olympic Games, they are also dominant on the American and European road racing circuit and world cross country events. East African middle and long distance runners are currently the dominant force in athletics. ![]()
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